| Syrian uprising | |||||||
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| Part of the Arab Spring | |||||||
 Anti-government demonstration in Homs. | |||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||
 Syrian Arab Republic
|  Syrian opposition
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| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
| Bashar al-Assad President of Syria Riyad Farid HijabPrime Minister of Syria Dawoud RajihaDefense Minister Fahed al-Jasem el-FreijChief Of Staff (Syrian Army) Maher al-AssadRepublican Guard Commander Mohammad Ibrahim al-ShaarInterior Minister Assef ShawkatDeputy Defense Minister and Intelligence head Walid MuallemForeign Affairs and Expatriates Minister | Abdulbaset Sieda Syrian National Council Chairman Burhan GhaliounSyrian National Council ex-Chairman (29 August 2011 – 10 June 2012) Riad al-AsaadFree Syrian Army Commander Mustafa Ahmed al-SheikhHigher Military Council Head Ali Sadreddine BayanouniMuslim Brotherhood Leader Haitham al-MalehHuman Rights in Syria spokesman Samir NasharSecretariat of the Damascus Declaration Member | ||||||
| Strength | |||||||
| Syrian Armed Forces: 304,000 (at peak)[11] Shabiha militiamen: 20,000 fighters | 40,000 fighters[12]
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| Casualties and losses | |||||||
| Syrian security forces | Syrian rebels and protesters
3,724-3,774 fighters* (see here) and 979-1,423 protesters killed,[21]
25,492 protesters and fighters captured[22]  Foreign Mujahideen36 killed[6] | ||||||
| 17,012[14]-17,623[22] Syrians killed overall (opposition claims)** 139 foreign civilians (see here) and 2 Turkish F4 Phantom pilots killed 240,000 displaced (180,000 refugees) | |||||||
| *Number possibly higher due to the opposition counting rebels that were not defectors as civilians.[23] **Numbers do not include foreign combatants from both sides or Shabiha militiamen who have been killed. | |||||||
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The Syrian uprising, is an ongoing, violent internal conflict in Syria. It began on 15 March 2011 with public demonstrations as part of the wider Arab Spring and developed into a nationwide uprising. Protesters demanded the end to nearly five decades of Ba’ath Party rule, which was then and currently headed by President Bashar al-Assad.
In the spring of 2011, the Syrian government deployed the Syrian Army to quell the uprising. Several cities have been besieged,[24][25] and soldiers were reportedly ordered to open fire on civilians.[26] According to witnesses, soldiers who refused to open fire on civilians were summarily executed by the Syrian Army.[27] Civilians and army defectors began forming fighting units, and unified under the banner of theFree Syrian Army, fighting in an increasingly organized fashion; however, the civilian component of the armed opposition lacks an organized leadership. The Syrian government categorizes the insurgency as "armed terrorist groups".[28]
According to various sources, including the United Nations, up to 16,505–23,715 people have been killed, of which about half were civilians, but also including 8,175–9,080 armed combatants from both sides[14][29][30][31] and up to 1,400 opposition protesters.[21] To escape the violence, thousands of Syrian refugees have fled the country to neighboring Jordan,[32] Lebanon and Turkey.[33][34] In addition, tens of thousands of protesters have been imprisoned, and there have been reports of widespread torture in the government's prisons.[35][36] International organizations have also accused the government and Shabiha of using civilians as human shields,[37][38] and of intentionally targeting civilians.[39]
The Arab League, United States, European Union, GCC states, and other countries have condemned the use of violence against the protesters. China and Russia have criticized the government,[40] but advise against sanctions, saying that such methods could escalate into foreign intervention.[41] However, military intervention has been ruled out by most countries.[42] The Arab League suspended Syria's membership over the government's response to the crisis,[43] but sent an observer mission in December 2011, as part of its proposal for peaceful resolution of the crisis. A further attempt to resolve the crisis has been made through the appointment of Kofi Annan as a special envoy. U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon had repeatedly stated that the Syrian conflict could emerge into an "all-out civil war".[44]
[edit]HistoryBackground
[edit]
Main article: Modern history of Syria
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Syria became an independent republic in 1946. A few years later, democratic rule was overturned by an American supported coup in March 1949.[45] Two more military coups took place that same year. A popular uprising against military rule in 1954 catalyzed a mutiny that saw the army transfer power to civilians. Free elections resulted in Shukri al-Quwatli, who had been the President at the time of the March 1949 coup, to be elected to that post in 1955. A brief union with Egypt in 1958 resulted in Syria's parliamentary system being replaced by a highly centralized presidential system. The union ended in 1961 with Syria's secession. A 1963 military coup d'état brought the Ba'ath Party to power, and was followed by another coup in 1966.[46] In 1970, then Defense Minister Hafez al-Assad seized power and declared himself President, a position he would hold until his death in 2000. Since then, the Ba'ath Party has remained the sole authority in Syria, and Syrian citizens may only approve the President by referendum and do not hold multi-party elections for the legislature.[47] In 1982, at the height of a six-year Islamist insurgency throughout the country, Assad conducted a scorched earthpolicy against the town of Hama to quell an uprising by the Sunni Islamist community, including the Muslim Brotherhood and others.[48] This became known as the Hama massacre, which left tens of thousands dead.[49]
The issue of Hafez al-Assad's succession prompted the 1999 Latakia protests,[50] when violent protests and armed clashes erupted following 1998 People's Assembly's Elections. The violent events were an explosion of a long-running feud between Hafez al-Assad and his younger brother Rifaat.[50] Two people were killed in fire exchanges between Syrian police and Rifaat's supporters during a police crack-down on Rifaat's port compound in Latakia. According to opposition sources, denied by the government, the protests resulted in hundreds of dead and injured.[51] Hafez al-Assad died one year later, from pulmonary fibrosis. He was succeeded by his son Bashar al-Assad, who was appointed after a constitutional amendment lowered the age requirement for President from 40 to his age of 34.[47]
Bashar al-Assad, who speaks fluent English and has a British-born wife, initially inspired hopes for reform; a "Damascus Spring" of intense political and social debate took place from July 2000 to August 2001.[52] The period was characterized by the emergence of numerous political forums or salons where groups of like minded people met in private houses to debate political and social issues. Political activists such as Riad Seif, Haitham al-Maleh, Kamal al-Labwani, Riyad al-Turk and Aref Dalila were important in mobilizing the movement.[53] The most famous of the forums were the Riad Seif Forum and the Jamal al-Atassi Forum. The Damascus Spring ended in August 2001 with the arrest and imprisonment of ten leading activists who had called for democratic elections and a campaign of civil disobedience.[50] Renewed opposition activity occurred in October 2005 when activist Michel Kilo collaborated with other leading opposition figures to launch the Damascus Declaration, which criticized the Syrian government as "authoritarian, totalitarian and cliquish" and called for democratic reform.[54]
Several riots prompted increased tension in Syria's Kurdish areas since 2004. That year, riots broke out against the government in the northeastern city of Qamishli. During a chaotic soccer match, some people raised Kurdish flags, and the match turned into a political conflict. In a brutal reaction by Syrian police and clashes between Kurdish and Arab groups, at least 30 people were killed,[55] with some claims indicating a casualty count of about 100 people.[56] Occasional clashes between Kurdish protesters and security forces have since continued.
The al-Assad family comes from the minority Alawite sect, an offshoot of Shiite Islam that comprises an estimated 12 percent of the Syrian population.[57] It has maintained tight control on Syria's security services, generating resentment among some Sunni Muslims,[58] a sect that makes up about three quarters of Syria's population.[59] Minority Kurds have also protested and complained.[60] Bashar al-Assad initially asserted that his state was immune from the kinds of mass protests that took place in Egypt.[61] Bouthaina Shaaban, a presidential adviser, blamed Sunni clerics and preachers for inciting Sunnis to revolt, such as Qatar-based Yusuf al-Qaradawi in a sermon in Doha on 25 March.[62] According to The New York Times, the Syrian government has relied "almost exclusively" on Alawite-dominated units of the security services to fight the uprising. His younger brother Maher al-Assad commands the army's Fourth Armored Division, and his brother-in-law, Assef Shawkat, is the deputy minister of defense.
[edit]Socio-economics
Socio-economic complaints have been reported, such as a deterioration in the country's standard of living, a reduction of state support for the poor resulting from the gradual transition towards afree market economy, the erosion of subsidies for basic goods and agriculture, free trade without suitable support to the local industry, and particularly high youth unemployment rates.[63][64]
[edit]Human rights
The state of human rights in Syria has long been the subject of harsh criticism from global organizations.[65] The country was under emergency rule from 1963 until 2011, effectively granting security forces sweeping powers of arrest and detention.[66] The Syrian government has justified this by pointing to the fact that the country has been in a continuous state of war with Israel. After taking power in 1970, Hafez al-Assad quickly purged the government of any political adversaries and asserted his control over all aspects of Syrian society. He developed an elaborate cult of personality and violently repressed any opposition, most notoriously in the 1982 Hama Massacre. After his death in 2000 and the succession of his son Bashar al-Assad to the Presidency, it was hoped that the Syrian government would make concessions toward the development of a more liberal society; this period became known as the Damascus Spring. However, al-Assad is widely regarded to have been unsuccessful in implementing democratic change, with a 2010 report from Human Rights Watch stating that he had failed to improve the state of human rights since taking power ten years prior.[67] All other political parties have remained banned, thereby making Syria a one-party state without free elections.[66]
Rights of expression, association and assembly are strictly controlled in Syria.[68] The authorities harass and imprison human rights activists and other critics of the government, who are oftentimes indefinitely detained and tortured in poor prison conditions.[68] While al-Assad permitted radio stations to play Western pop music, websites such as Amazon, Facebook, Wikipediaand YouTube were blocked until 1 January 2011, when all citizens were permitted to sign up for high speed Internet, and those sites were allowed.[69] However, a 2007 law requires Internet cafesto record all comments that users post on online chat forums.[70]
In an interview published 31 January 2011, al-Assad declared it was time to reform, that the protests in Egypt, Tunisia and Yemen indicated a "new era" was coming to the Middle East, and that Arab rulers needed to do more to accommodate their peoples' rising political and economic aspirations.[71]
Women and ethnic minorities have faced discrimination in the public sector.[68] Thousands of Syrian Kurds were denied citizenship in 1962, and their descendants continued to be labeled as "foreigners" until 2011, when 120,000 out of roughly 200,000 stateless Kurds were granted citizenship on 6 April.[72] Because the government is dominated by the Alawite sect, it has had to make some gestures toward the majority Sunni sects and other minority populations in order to retain power.
[edit]Timeline
Main article: Timeline of the 2011–2012 Syrian uprising
[edit]Summary
When limited protests first began early in 2011, Assad instituted a policy of combining harsh repression with tardy political concessions.[73]:8 For example, in early June 2011, several hundred political detainees were released following the issuance of an amnesty on 31 May 2011, but at the same time Syrian security forces escalated their response to the demonstrations by deploying military forces to areas where protest was most intense.[74]:4 This violence led to a dramatic expansion in both the numbers of people protesting and to an extension of the issues they protested about.[74]:3 Violence began to increase dramatically after March 2012, as Assad moved against opposition fighters who were becoming better armed and organised thanks to substantial external assistance.[75] By June 2012, deaths of Syrian armed forces had increased appreciably; nevertheless, the conflict retained a protracted outlook.[76][77]
[edit]Protests
The protest movement in Syria was at first modest, and took a while to gain momentum. The events began on 26 January 2011,[79] when Hasan Ali Akleh from Al-Hasakah poured gasoline on himself and set himself on fire, in the same way Tunisian Mohamed Bouazizi had in Tunis on 17 December 2010. According to eyewitnesses, the action was "a protest against the Syrian government".[80][81] Two days later, on 28 January 2011, an evening demonstration was held in Ar-Raqqah to protest the killing of two soldiers of Kurdish descent.[82]
On 3 February, a "Day of Rage" was called for in Syria from 4 to 5 February on social media websites Facebook and Twitter; however, protests failed to materialize within the country itself.[83] Hundreds marched in Al-Hasakah, but Syrian security forces dispersed the protest and arrested dozens of demonstrators.[84] Al Jazeera labeled Syria a "kingdom of silence", concluding that protests would not succeed due to the popularity of al-Assad and concerns over the prospects of insurgency like that seen in neighboring Iraq.[85] A protest in late February at the Libyan Embassy in Damascus to demonstrate against the government of Muammar Gaddafi, facing his own major protests in Libya, was met with brutal beatings from Syrian police moving to disperse the demonstration against a friendly regime.[86]
On 6 March, Time magazine ran a story which analysed the state of the Syrian youth and why, despite some individuals being extremely critical of the government, it would be unlikely for this anger to develop into a full-fledged uprising.[87] Ribal al-Assad said that it was almost time for Syria to be the next domino in the burgeoning Arab Spring.[88] Indeed, on 15 March, the protest movement began to escalate, as simultaneous demonstrations took place in major cities across Syria.[89] Increasingly, the city of Daraa became the focal point for the growing uprising. This city has been straining under the influx of internal refugees who were forced to leave their northeastern lands due to a drought which was exacerbated by the government's lack of provision.[90] Over 100,000 people reportedly marched in Daraa on 25 March, but at least 20 protesters were reportedly killed.[91] Protests also spread to other Syrian cities, including Homs, Hama, Baniyas, Jassem, Aleppo, Damascus and Latakia. Over 70 protesters in total were reported dead.[92] Late in the month, the first signs were seen that the government was willing to make concessions to the protesters, when al-Assad announced the release of as many as 200 political prisoners.[93] An Assad adviser said the emergency law would be lifted,[94] and Assad accepted the official resignation of the government led by Prime Minister Muhammad Naji al-Otari.[95] Assad denied the emergency law would be lifted at the end of March, however.[96]
In April, the uprising became more extensive, and more violent. Protesters were shot at on 1 April, leading to at least 10 deaths.[97] Well over 30 people were killed in a crackdown on protests on 8 April, activists and human rights groups claimed.[98] Tens of thousands of protesters were prevented from entering Damascus from Douma on 15 April, though this restriction did not prevent widespread protests in many Syrian cities.[99] Other cities where protesting was particularly strong were in Daraa, Baniyas, Al-Qamishli and Homs.[100][101] There were also protests in Douma and Harasta, suburbs of Damascus. Firing throughout the country resulted 88 deaths among security forces and protesters, making it the bloodiest day so far.[100] Tanks and soldiers entered Daraa and Douma and the border with Jordan was also closed.[102]According to an activist, 18 people were killed in Daraa.[103] Al Jazeera reported that some soldiers appeared to have been shot by their own comrades-in-arms after refusing orders to fire on protesters.[104] On 29 April, more than 60 protesters were killed in demonstrations across Syria. The United States responded with harsh sanctions against the Syrian government.[105]
[edit]Protests and military sieges
As protests continued, the Syrian government used tanks and snipers to force people off the streets. Water and electricity were shut off in the city ofDaraa, and security forces began confiscating flour and food.[106] A similar situation was reported in Homs.[107] In May, the Syrian army entered the cities of Baniyas, Hama, Homs, Talkalakh, Latakia, the Al-Midan and Douma districts of Damascus, and several other towns.[108][109]
Baniyas was besieged in early May, and divided into zones of de facto control, with protesters largely controlling the south and security forces enforcing the laws of the government in the north. Major demonstrations saw nearly 20 deaths on 6 May, and the government said 11 soldiers were shot by "armed groups" on the same day.[110] The violent suppression of protests in Homs, Daraa, and other rebellious cities continued throughout the month.[111][112] A 17 May report of claims by refugees coming from Telkalakh on the Lebanese border indicated that sectarian attacks may have been occurring. Sunni refugees said that uniformed Alawite Shabiha militiamen were killing Sunnis in the town of Telkalakh. The reporter also stated that according to arms dealers, "sales of black market weapons in Lebanon have skyrocketed in recent weeks driven almost entirely by demand in Syria."[113]
Early June, the Syrian government said more than 20 Syrian demonstrators were shot dead at the Golan Heights by Israeli forces, when trying to cross the cease-fire line during Naksa Day demonstrations. This was perceived by Israelis as a way for the Syrian government to divert attention from the Syrian unrest by allowing demonstrators to reach all the way to the Golan Heights.[114] The army also besieged the northern cities of Jisr ash-Shugur[115] and Maarat al-Numaan near the Turkish border.[116] The Syrian Army claimed the towns were the site of mass graves of Syrian security personnel killed during the uprising and justified the attacks as operations to rid the region of "armed gangs",[117] though local residents claimed the dead Syrian troops and officers were executed for refusing to fire on protesters.[118]< The siege of Daraa continued in the meantime, with a French journalist reporting famine-like conditions in the town.[119] On 20 June, in a speech lasting nearly an hour, in response to the demands of protesters and foreign pressure, Assad promised a "national dialogue" involving movement toward reform, new parliamentary elections, and greater freedoms. He also urged refugees to return home from Turkey, while assuring them amnesty and blaming all unrest on a small number of "saboteurs". The speech received mixed reactions domestically and abroad and was largely dismissed by protesters.[120] On 30 June, large protests erupted against the Assad government in Aleppo (Syria's second largest city) which were labeled the "Aleppo volcano".[121]
In mid-July, pro-government protesters attacked the US and French embassies in Damascus, responding to those countries' support for the opposition.[122] Attacks on protests continued throughout July, with government forces repeatedly firing at protester and employing tanks against demonstrations, as well as conducting arrests. On 31 July, a siege of Hama escalated during a so-called "Ramadan Massacre", in which at least 136 people were killed and hundreds wounded when Syrian forces attacked demonstrators across the country, employing tanks, artillery and snipers. Most of the deaths occurred in Hama.[123]
Syrian forces continued to bombard Hama in early August, along with attacks in other cities and towns.[124] On the first full weekend of Ramadan, the Arab League and several Gulf Cooperation Council member states led by Saudi Arabia broke their silence on the events in Syria to condemn the government's response.[125] Throughout August, Syrian forces stormed major urban centers and outlying regions, and continued to attack protests.
On 14 August, the Syrian Navy became involved in the military crackdown. Gunboats fired heavy machine guns at waterfront districts in Latakia as ground troops and security agents backed by armor stormed several neighborhoods. Up to 28 people were killed. Eight more civilians were killed elsewhere in the country.[126]
Throughout the next few days, the Siege of Latakia dragged on, with government forces and shabiha militia continuing to fire on civilians in the city, as well as throughout the country over the following days. On 30 August, during the first day of Eid ul-Fitr, thousands of people demonstrated in Homs, Daraa, and suburbs of Damascus. Nine people were killed when security forces fired on these demonstrations. Eid celebrations in the country were reportedly muted, with people trying to visit the graves of their loved ones being killed.[127] Protests continued into the following months, with security forces and militia continuing to fire at demonstrators and raid towns and neighborhoods across the country.
On 7 October, prominent Kurdish rights activist Mishaal al-Tammo was assassinated when masked gunmen burst into his flat, with the Syrian government blamed for his death. At least 20 other civilians were also killed during crackdowns on demonstrations across the country. The next day, more than 50,000 mourners marched in Al-Qamishli to mark Tammo's funeral, and at least 14 were killed when security forces fired on them.[128]
In August, The Jerusalem Post reported that protesters enraged at Hezbollah's support for Assad's government burned Hezbollah flags and images of its leader Hassan Nasrallah in several places in Syria.[129] Pro-government protestors have carried posters of Hassan Nasrallah.[130] Hezbollah states they support a process of reforms in Syria and that they also are against what they term US plots to destabilize and interfere in Syria.[131]
Six months into the uprising, the inhabitants of Syria's two largest cities, Damascus and Aleppo, remain largely uninvolved in the anti-government protests.[132] The two cities central squares have seen rallies in the tens of thousands in support of Assad and his government.[133] Analysts and even opposition activists themselves acknowledge that without mass participation in the protest movement from these two cities, the government will survive and avoid the fate of its counterparts in Egypt and Tunisia.[133]
Throughout August and September, Syrian forces continued to suppress protests, with hundreds of killings and arrests reportedly having taken place. The crackdown continued into the first three days of November. On 3 November, the government accepted an Arab League plan that aims to restore the peace in the country. According to members of the opposition, however, government forces continued their suppression of protests. Throughout the month, there were numerous reports of civilians taken from their homes turning up dead and mutilated, clashes between loyalist troops and defectors, and electric shocks and hot iron rods being used to torture detainees.
[edit]Protests and armed clashes
On 14 November, more than 70 people were killed across Syria as the army clashed with defectors and shot at civilians. Some 34 soldiers and 12 defectors were killed, along with 27 civilians.[134]
On 9 November, UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay warned that the country could slip into "a Libyan-style civil war".[135]
On 12 December, local elections under reformed electoral law were held amid the tensions.[136]
Activists said security forces killed up to 70 army defectors on 19 December as they were deserting their military posts near the Turkish border. At least 30 other people died in other violence across the country, the activists said. If accurate, it would be one of the heaviest daily tolls of the entire revolt up until December.[137]
On 23 December, two suicide bombs hit two security facilities in Damascus, killing 30 civilians and soldiers. The government stated the attack "carried the blue print of al-Qaeda", whereas opposition members blamed the government,[138] and hinted that the government itself may have been behind the attacks to make its case to Arab League observers who arrived in the country only the day before. Government officials brought the advance team of Arab League observers to the scene to see the wreckage. Omar Idilbi, a member of the Syrian National Council thought the explosions "very mysterious because they happened in heavily guarded areas that are difficult to be penetrated by a car."[139] Two days earlier, Lebanese authorities had warned that al-Qaeda members were entering Syria from North Lebanon.[140]
On 11 January, a mortar attack on a pro-government rally in Homs killed a French journalist, Gilles Jacquier of France 2, and seven others.[141]
On 27 January, Arab League observer mission reported on attacks carried out by opposition forces.
Recently, there have been incidents that could widen the gap and increase bitterness between the parties. These incidents can have grave consequences and lead to the loss of life and property. Such incidents include the bombing of buildings, trains carrying fuel, vehicles carrying diesel oil and explosions targeting the police, members of the media and fuel pipelines. Some of those attacks have been carried out by the Free Syrian Army and some by other armed opposition groups.[142]
On 1 February, Riad al-Asaad, commander of the Free Syrian army, claimed that "Fifty percent of Syrian territory is no longer under the control of the regime," and that half of the country was now effectively a no-go zone for the security forces. He said the morale of government troops was extremely low. "That’s why they are bombing indiscriminately, killing men, women and children," he said.[143]
Protests have drifted abroad to the doorsteps of Syrian embassies. After the opposition had claimed that more than 200 people perished in the massacre in Homs on 2 February 2012, both Syrian and non-Syrian protesters in Cairo, Kuwait City, and London damaged their respective Syrian embassy.[144]
In an attack on buildings used by Syrian military intelligence in Aleppo, at least 28 people died and 235 were injured on 10 February 2012. The Free Syrian Army, through colonel Arif Hamood, claimed responsibility for the attacks in an interview with France 24, saying mortars and RPGs had been used instead of car bombs as was initially reported.[145] However, shortly thereafter another FSA leader, Riad al-Asaad, denied FSA involvement and asserted a false-flag conspiracy in which the Assad government is presented as the perpetrator of the attack on its own buildings.[146] A correspondent for the Dutch public broadcaster NOS described the latter as an unlikely explanation for the attacks, pointing out that the FSA have earlier indicated that one of their targets is military intelligence, which they hold responsible for a major part of the violence against the opposition.[147]
[edit]Ceasefire attempt
Main article: Kofi Annan peace plan for Syria
Kofi Annan's peace plan provided for a ceasefire, but even as the negotiations for it were being conducted, Syrian armed forces attacked a number of towns and villages, and summarily executed scores of people.[148]:11 Incommunicado detention, including of children, also continued.[149] On 12 April, both sides, the Syrian Government and rebels of the FSA entered a UN mediated ceasefire period. It was a failure, and several dozens of casualties accumulated across Syria due to infractions of the ceasefire by both sides.
[edit]Renewed fighting
Following the Houla massacre and the consequent FSA ultimatum to the Syrian government, the cease fire practically collapsed towards the end of May 2012, as FSA began nation-wide offensives against the government troops. On 1 June, the Syrian President Bashar al-Assad vowed to crush an anti-regime uprising, after the rebel Free Syrian Army (FSA) announced that it was resuming "defensive operations."[150]
On 2 June, 57 soldiers were killed in Syria, the largest number of casualties the military has suffered in a single day since the uprising broke out in mid-March 2011.[150]
Since 5 June, the Syrian army has been battling rebels around the city of Latakia, using tanks and helicopter gunships.[151]
On 6 June, 78 civilians were killed in the Al-Qubair massacre. According to activist sources, government forces started by shelling the village before pro-government militia, the Shabiha, moved in.[152] The UN observers rushed to the village in a hope to investigate the alleged massacre but were met with a road-block and small arms fire before the village and were forced to retreat.[153][154]
At the same time, the conflict has started moving into the two largest cities (Damascus and Aleppo) that the government claimed were being dominated by the silent majority, which wanted stability, not government change. In both places there has been a revival of the protest movement in its peaceful dimension. Shopkeepers across the capital staged a general strike and in several Aleppo commercial districts mounted a similar but smaller protest. This has been interpreted by some as indicating that the historical alliance between the government and the business establishment in the large cities has become weak.[155]
On 22 June, a Turkish F-4 fighter jet was shot down by Syrian government forces.[156] Both pilots were killed.[157] Syria admitted shooting the fighter down, stating that the Turkish fighter was flying over Syrian territorial waters 1 kilometer away from land when it was fired on by anti-aircraft artillery near the village of Om al-Tuyour.[158] Turkey's foreign minister stated the jet was shot down in international airspace after accidentally entering Syrian airspace, while it was on a training flight to test Turkey's radar capabilities.[159] Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoganvowed retaliation, saying: "The rules of engagement of the Turkish Armed Forces have changed ... Turkey will support Syrian people in every way until they get rid of the bloody dictator and his gang."[160] Ankara acknowledged that the jet had flown over Syria for a short time, but said such temporary overflights were common, had not led to an attack before, and alleged that Syrian helicopters had violated Turkish airspace five times without being attacked and that a second, search-and-rescue jet had been fired at.[160][161] Russian technicians were accused of playing a key role in the interception and shooting down of the jet, though no evidence was presented.[162] Assad later expressed regret over the incident.[163]
Attempts by the international community to agree a transitional government of national unity failed at the beginning of July after Russia insisted the agreement should not preclude Assad from being part of it.[164] Syrian opposition groups rejected the UN-brokered peace plan, arguing that it was ambiguous, and vowing not to negotiate with President Bashar Assad or members of his regime.[165]
In early July, Manaf Tlass, a Brigadier General of the Republican Guard, defected from Syria, making him the highest-level military defector yet since the uprising began. Western diplomats said his flight is a sign of Assad's weakening inner circle.[166]
[edit]Parties in the conflict
[edit]Syrian National Council
Main article: Syrian National Council
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The Syrian opposition met several times in conferences held mostly in Turkey and formed a National Council.
The Federation of Tenseekiet Syrian Revolution helped in the formation of a Transitional National Assembly on 23 August in Istanbul "to serve as the political stage of the Revolution of the Syrian people". The creation of the Syrian National Council was celebrated by the Syrian protestors since the Friday protest following its establishment was dubbed "The Syrian National Council Represents Me".[167][168] The Syrian National Council gained the recognition of a few countries, including "sole legitimate interlocutor" by the United States.[169]
[edit]Local coordination committees
Main article: Local coordination committees of Syria
The networks of anti-government protest organizers formed decentralized "Local Coordination Committees" which drew together the young, unorganized protesters. The Committees are used to document protests and spread anti-government messages throughout Syria. Though they have only a few hundred members, the Local Coordination Committees rose to prominence as the core of the protest movement on the ground, separate from the organized political opposition. The Committees are also noted for trying to reach out to minority groups and diversify the demonstrations.[170]
[edit]Free Syrian Army and other armed opposition groups
Main article: Free Syrian Army
In late July 2011, a web video featuring a group of uniformed men claiming to be defected Syrian Army officers proclaimed the formation of a Free Syrian Army (FSA). In the video, the men called upon Syrian soldiers and officers to defect to their ranks, and said the purpose of the Free Syrian Army was to defend protesters from violence by the state.[1] Many Syrian soldiers subsequently deserted to join the FSA.[171] The actual number of soldiers who defected to the FSA is uncertain, with estimates ranging from 1,000 to over 25,000 as of December 2011.[172] Nir Rosen, who spent time with the FSA in Syria, claims the majority of its members are civilians rather than defectors, who had taken up arms long before the formation of the FSA was announced. He also stated they have no central leadership.[173]
As deserting soldiers abandoned their armored vehicles and brought only light weaponry and munitions, FSA adopted guerilla-style tactics against security forces inside cities. Its primary target has been the shabiha militias. Most FSA attacks however are directed against trucks and buses that are believed to bring security reinforcements. Sometimes the vehicle occupants are taken ashostages, in other cases the vehicles are attacked either with roadside bombs or through hit-and-run attacks. The FSA has also targeted power lines and water mains in "retaliation against Hezbollah’s provocations."[174] To encourage defection, the FSA began attacking army patrols, shooting the commanders and trying to convince the soldiers to switch sides. FSA units have also acted as defense forces by guarding neighborhoods rife with opposition, guarding streets while protests take place, and attacking shabiha members. However, the FSA engaged in street battles with security forces in Deir ez-Zor, Al-Rastan, and Al-Bukamal. Fighting in these cities raged for days, with no clear victor. In Hama, Homs, Al-Rastan, Deir ez-Zor, and Daraa, the Syrian military used airstrikes against them, leading to calls from the FSA for the imposition of a no-fly zone.[175] The Free Syrian Army numbers about 15,000 men according to a statement its leader Riad al-Asaad made on Al Jazeera, and he added that these were almost exclusively reserve troops that defected from the Syrian army, and thus were no match against the government's highly trained active-duty troops.
The Syrian government claims that some elements among the armed opposition are Salafists.[176] More than 3,000 members of the Syrian security forces have been killed, which the Syrian government states is due to "armed gangs" being among the protesters, yet the opposition blames the deaths on the government.[177][178] Syrians have been crossing the border to Lebanon to buy weapons on the black market since the beginning of the protests.[179] Clan leaders in Syria claim that the armed uprising is of a tribal, revenge-based nature, not Islamist.[180] On 6 June, the government said more than 120 security personnel were killed by "armed gangs"; 20 in an ambush, and 82 in an attack on a security post.[181] The main centers of unrest – Daraa near Jordan, where the uprising began, Talkalakh, Homs, Talbiseh, and Al-Rastan near Lebanon, and Jisr ash-Shugur near Turkey – have been described as being predominately Sunni Muslim towns and cities close to the country's borders where smuggling has been common for generations, and thus have more access to smuggled weapons.[182]
In September 2011, the Syrian government claimed to have killed a total of 700 insurgents.[183]
One commander from the Free Syrian Army claimed resistance was Islamic struggle against a secular government, though qualified that they were fighting for all of Syria's religions and sects: Christian, Muslim, Alawite, Sunni, Druze, Shia.[184] "Islamists in Syria are weak. The Baath regime devastated the Islamist movement after its opposition led to widespread violence and instability in Syria from 1977 to 1982"; however, "Islamist sentiment remains powerful . . . and religious organizations retain a social network throughout Syrian society. If infighting paralyzed the Alawis, particularly if it led to a split in the military, Islamists might increase their influence."[185]:73 In mid-2012, Mohaimen al-Rumaid of the Syrian Rebel Front said the US should cast aside its reticence over arming the opposition due to the involvement of Islamists, since the latter are among the most effective fighters against the government. Sameh al-Hamwi, a prominent activist based on Syria's border with Turkey, said that, while rebel groups were adopting Islamist slogans and making jihadist-style videos, this was solely to please their Gulf supporters, and denied that Islamism was the major current within the opposition.[186]
The political and military opposition are each worryingly divided and disconnected from each other.[187][188] Daniel Byman argues uniting, training and pushing the armed opposition to avoid religious sectarianism at all costs is crucial. The latter is important, for otherwise the Alawites and other minorities will fight all the harder, and make post-Assad Syria more difficult to govern.[189]
[edit]Kurdish and Palestinian stance
Main article: Kurdish participation in the 2011–2012 Syrian uprising
Syrian Kurds represented 10% of Syria's population at the start of the uprising. They had suffered from decades of discrimination and neglect, being deprived of basic civil, cultural, economic and social rights. Additionally, since 1962, they and their children had been denied Syrian nationality, a situation that led to other problems relating to personal status and an inability to seek employment in the public sector.[73]:7 When protests began, Assad's government, in an effort to try and neutralise potential Kurdish opposition, finally granted citizenship to an estimated 200,000 stateless Kurds.[190] This concession on citizenship, combined with Turkish endorsement of the opposition and Kurdish underrepresentation in the Syrian National Council, has meant that Kurds have participated in the 2011–2012 Syrian uprising in smaller numbers than their Syrian Arab counterparts.[190][191] Consequently, violence and repression in Kurdish areas has been less severe.[190][192] According to Ariel Zirulnick of the Christian Science Monitor, the Assad government "has successfully convinced many of Syria's Kurds and Christians that without the iron grip of a leader sympathetic to the threats posed to minorities, they might meet the same fate" as minorities in Lebanon and Iraq.[193]
In 2012, several cities with large Kurdish populations, such as Qamishli and Al-Hasakah, began witnessing protests of several thousand people against the Syrian government, which responded with tanks and fired upon the protesters.[194]
Senior Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) leader Cemil Bayik stated that if Turkey were to intervene against Assad, the PKK would fight on the Syrian side. The PKK's Syrian branch is alleged to be involved in the targeting of Kurds participating in the uprising.[195]
In May 2012, a delegation of the Kurdish National Council of Syria (KNCS), a coalition of ten Syrian-Kurdish parties established in October 2011, was invited to Washington for talks. Amongst others the delegation met Robert Ford, the former U.S. ambassador to Syria.[196]
The reaction of Palestinians in Syria has been mixed: many just want to stay out of the situation, some (particularly younger people) have actively supported the protests, but the PFLP is widely accused of actively supporting the repression (Assad has sheltered the group for years).[197]
[edit]Shabiha
Main article: Shabiha
Shabiha (Arabic: الشبيحة; from the word شبح "ghost") have been described as "a notorious Alawite paramilitary, who are accused of acting as unofficial enforcers for Assad’s regime";[198] "gunmen loyal to Assad";[199] "semi-criminal gangs comprised of thugs close to the regime."[199] Some "shabiha" operating in Aleppo have been reported to be Sunni, however.[200] Bassel al-Assad is reported to have created the secretive militia for the government in times of when it was in crisis.[201]
According to a Syrian citizen, shabiha is a term that was used to refer to gangs involved in smuggling during the Syrian occupation of Lebanon: "They used to travel in ghost cars without plates; that's how they got the name Shabbiha. They would smuggle cars from Lebanon to Syria. The police turned a blind eye, and in return Shabbiha would act as a shadow militia in case of need".[202]Witnesses and refugees from the northwestern region say that the shabiha have been intimately involved in the killing, looting and destruction.[202][203]
[edit]Sectarianism
Main article: Sectarianism in the 2011–2012 Syrian uprising
At the uprising's outset, some protesters reportedly chanted "Christians to Beirut; Alawites to the coffin".[204][205] While many in the opposition view the conflict as a sectarian one, some have accused the government of fomenting sectarianism;[206] In a TIME report, an anti-Assad activist claimed that the Syrian government had paid government workers to write anti-Alawite graffiti and chant sectarian slogans at opposition rallies.[207] Alawites who have taken refugee in Lebanon have also told journalists that they were offered money by the Syrian government to spread sectarianism through chants and graffiti.[207]
[edit]Foreign involvement
The Syrian conflict has been interpreted as part of a proxy war between Sunni states such as Saudi Arabia, Turkey and Qatar, who support the Sunni-led opposition, and Iran, Iraq and Hezbollah in Lebanon, who support the Alawite-led government in Syria.[208][209] Israeli reactions have been mixed, with some believing regime change in Syria would weaken their enemy Iran,[210] and others believing a post-Assad Syria might be more dangerous for the Jewish State.[211] Former Mossad chief Efraim Halevy has suggested that Israel should exploit the Shia-Sunni conflict.[212]Eventually, well into the Syrian uprising, Isreal decided to support the Syrian rebels and called for a regime change in Syria. The president, Shimon Peres, said that the international community is not doing enough to stop the violence, and he urged the West to intervene. The Prime Minister, Benjamin Netanyahu said that an "axis of evil" is behind the atrocities in Syria. Netanyahu told the Cabinet that Iran and the militant group Hezbollah in Lebanon are assisting the Syrian government in the massacre of civilians.[213]
In February 2012 German Foreign Minister Guido Westerwelle warned that a proxy war in Syria could "cause a confrontation that drags in even Moscow and Beijing".[214] Before his departure to the 2012 G8 Summit the Russian Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev warned, that "actions, which undermine state sovereignty" may well end in "a full-blown regional war" and even the "use of nuclear weapons".[215] Syrian state institutions are regime-centred,[216] thus another Brookings scholar, citing post-invasion Iraq, cautioned against the goal of an immediate purge of all Baathists.[187]
Reuters suggested that the prospect of British special forces entering Syria on the ground is growing, following unconfirmed reports from an Israeli website that SAS Commandos were conducting covert operations within Syrian territory, operating from Turkey on 26 June 2012.[217] In July 2012, Switzerland ceased arms exports to the UAE after it emerged Swiss weapons were finding their way to opposition fighters.[218] The Swiss decision came shortly after the UN human rights chief, Navi Pillay, called for an urgent stop to arms transfers to government and opposition forces so as to avoid "further militarisation" of the conflict.[219] The director of the Saban Center for Middle East Policy had previously argued that, while "uncontrolled militarization will turn the Syrian uprising into a wider conflict that could draw in jihadis and other extremists from across the Muslim World", militarisation was inevitable, and so the US should help facilitate and guide it.[220] Marc Lynchargued the opposite in February 2012, as the provision of weapons from Saudi Arabia and Qatar was being mooted: "It is unlikely that arms from the outside would come close to evening the balance of power, and would only invite escalations from Syrian regime forces".[221] Lynch was correct: according to the Syrian National Council, the increasingly fierce air and artillery assaults by the government after March 2012 were intended to counter the improved weaponry, coordination and tactics among the opposition forces that arrived from Arab states via Turkey and US facilitation;[222] in June, Amnesty International said the fighting during spring had escalated to "the level and intensity of a non-international armed conflict",[148]:10 while the UN's head of peacekeeping, Herve Ladsous said the country was now in a state of "civil war";[223] and in July, the head of the UN monitoring mission to Syria, General Robert Mood, warned that violence was reaching an "unprecedented level",[224] as EU foreign policy chief, Catherine Ashton, noted the level of violence and number of casualties had risen to "unimaginable levels" over previous weeks.[225] At a conference in Paris shortly afterward, Western and Sunni Arab countries nonetheless announced they were going to "massively increase" aid to the Syrian opposition.[226]Opposition violence has reportedly alarmed some of the peaceful protesters and activists who first drove the uprising.[227]
[edit]Support for the opposition
Turkey provided refuge for Syrian dissidents. Syrian opposition activists convened in Istanbul in May to discuss regime change,[228] and Turkey hosts the head of the Free Syria Army, Colonel Riad al-Asaad.[229][230] Turkey has become increasingly hostile to the Assad government's policies, has encouraged reconciliation among dissident factions. Beginning in May 2012, some Syrian opposition fighters began being armed and trained by the Turkish Intelligence.[231]
Some countries have cut ties with the Assad government including: the Gulf States, Libya, Tunisia,[232] Britain, Spain, Turkey, the United States and Belgium.[233] Canada has closed its visa office but maintains an embassy in Damascus.[234]
On 1 November, NATO said it had no intention of taking military action in Syria, after it closed its seven-month campaign in Libya.[235]
Sunni Islamist group Hizb ut-Tahrir has voiced its support for the Syrian opposition,[236] as has Hamas prime minister of Gaza, Ismail Haniya,[237] though Hamas leader Salah al-Bardaweel added that this does not mean severance of ties with the Assad government.[238] The Syrian branch of the Muslim Brotherhood provided active assistance.[222]
Al-Qaeda and affiliates are anti-Assad. American officials believe that Al-Qaeda in Iraq has conducted bomb attacks against government forces,[239] and al-Qaeda leader Ayman al-Zawahiricondemned Assad.[240] On 23 April, one of the leaders of Fatah al-Islam, Abdel Ghani Jawhar, was killed during the Battle of Al-Qusayr, after he blew himself up while making a bomb.[4] A member of the Abdullah Azzam Brigades in Lebanon admitted that his group had sent fighters to Syria, while a group thought linked to al-Qaeda and calling itself the al-Nusra Front claimed for a suicide bomb attack on 6 January 2012 in the central Damascus neighbourhood of al-Midan killed 26 people, most of whom were civilians,[241] as well as for truck bombs that killed 55 people and injured 370. Jihadist leaders and intelligence sources said foreign fighters had begun to enter Syria only in February 2012.[242] In May 2012, Syria's U.N. envoy Bashar Ja'afari declared that dozens of foreign fighters from Libya, Tunisia, Egypt, Britain, France elsewhere had been captured or killed, and urged Saudi Arabia, Qatar and Turkey to stop "their sponsorship of the armed rebellion".[243][244] Jihadist leaders and intelligence sources said foreign fighters had begun to enter Syria only in February 2012.[242] In June, it was reported that hundreds of foreign fighters, many linked to al-Qaeda, had gone to Syria to fight against Assad.[245] In July, Iraq's foreign minister again warned that members of al-Qaeda in Iraq were seeking refuge in Syria and moving there to fight.[224] When asked if the United States would arm the opposition, Hillary Clinton expressed fears that such weapons could fall into the hands of al-Qaeda or Hamas.[246]
A crucial line of support began in spring 2012 as Saudi Arabia and Qatar announced they would begin arming and bankrolling the opposition.[247][248][249] Paul Salem, director of the Carnegie Middle East Centre in Beirut, and Emile Hokayem of the International Institute of Strategic Studies argued such support would be unlikely to immediately make a decisive impact.[249][250] A ship carrying weapons from Libya believed destined for Syria's rebels has also been intercepted.[251]
In mid-April 2011, WikiLeaks revealed that the United States had secretly funnelled as much as $6 million to a London-based opposition group Movement for Justice and Development since 2006 to operate the Barada TV satellite channel and finance other activities inside Syria.[252] A report in the Washington Post in May 2012 described how the provision of military aid to opposition forces from Gulf states was being partly coordinated by the US.[253] A month later, the New York Times reported that the American involvement was being overseen by CIA officers in Turkey, and that the weapons provided included "automatic rifles, rocket-propelled grenades, ammunition and some antitank weapons". Part of the CIA's role was "helping to vet rebel groups" to ensure fighters allied with Al Qaeda or other terrorist groups were not benefiting from the flood of weaponry being provided and paid for by Turkey, Saudi Arabia and Qatar.[222] The American vetting is partly an attempt to learn the lessons of assisting jihadi opposition groups in Afghanistan in the 1980s, which left a negative legacy of empowering radical Islamists that has lasted to the present day.[254]US Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta emphasised that, in contrast to others, his country was only providing facilitation and non-lethal support to the opposition.[255] A few days later, The Guardian reported plans by Saudi Arabia to pay the salaries of the Free Syria Army via a command centre in Turkey, the aim being to encourage mass defections from the Syrian military.[256]
[edit]Defections
According to Daniel Byman: "Because the Syrian elite fears losing its privileged position and suffering payback for its decades of brutality, it is unlikely to support Assad's removal, particularly if they see the opposition as weak, divided, and thus unable to win in the long-term."[257] Thus when, on 8 March 2012, Abdo Hussameddin, Syria's deputy oil minister, became the highest political figure to have defected to the opposition since the start of the uprising,[258] it was important not to read too much into it.[259] And though there had been defections from the armed forces, in June 2012 Damascus still retained control of many key divisions and the loyalty of its most elite units and inner sanctum.[161] Early in July, the most significant defection to date took place, as General Manaf Tlas, who is from one of the country's most famous families, joined the rebels, though the value of his defection for the opposition was again primarily symbolic..[260]
[edit]Support for the Syrian government
[edit]Russia
Main article: Russia's role in the Syrian uprising
See also: Russian naval base in Tartus
Russia has provided arms, including refurbished helicopter gunships, and diplomatic support to the Syrian government. In January 2012, Human Rights Watch criticised Russia for "repeating the mistakes of Western governments" in its "misguided" support of Assad.[261] Amnesty International, noting the Syrian government's headlong deployment of military helicopters, criticised Russia of "a wanton disregard for humanity."[262] Human Rights Watch warned Russia's state-owned arms-trading company Rosoboronexport in a letter that, under international law, "providing weapons to Syria while crimes against humanity are being committed may translate into assisting in the commission of those crimes", and called on governments and companies around the world to stop signing new contracts and consider suspending current dealings with the Russian company.[263] Not long after, however, the US bought Mi-17 helicopters from Rosoboronexport worth hundreds of millions of dollars.[264] One of Russia's major interests is access to the port of Tartus, home to its only remaining military base outside the former USSR and thus a key source of its influence in the eastern Mediterranean.[265]
[edit]Iran
Iran's supreme leader, Ali Khamenei, was vocally in favor of the Syrian government.[266] The Guardian reported that the Iranian government is assisting the Syrian government with riot control equipment and intelligence monitoring techniques.[267] The Economist said that Iran had, by February 2012, sent the Syrian government $9 billion to help it withstand Western sanctions.[268] It has also shipped fuel to the country and sent two warships to a Syrian port in a display of power and support.[269]
U.S. President Barack Obama and U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations Susan Rice accused Iran of secretly aiding Assad in his efforts to quell the protests,[270] and there have been reports of Syrian protesters hearing security-force members speaking Persian.[271]
According to a U.N. panel in May 2012, Iran supplied the Syrian government with arms during the previous year despite a ban on weapons exports by the Islamic Republic. Turkish authorities captured crates and a truck in February 2012, including assault rifles, machine guns, explosives, detonators, 60mm and 120mm mortal shells as well as other items on its border. It was believed these were destined for the Syrian government. The confidential report leaked just hours after an article appeared in the Washington Post revealing how Syrian opposition fighters started to receive more, and better, weapons in an effort paid for by Gulf Arab states and co-ordinated partly by the US.[272] The report investigated three large illegal shipments of Iranian weapons over the past year and stated "Iran has continued to defy the international community through illegal arms shipments. Two of these cases involved (Syria), as were the majority of cases inspected by the Panel during its previous mandate, underscoring that Syria continues to be the central party to illicit Iranian arms transfers."[273]
In March 2012, anonymous U.S. intelligence officials claimed a spike in Iranian-supplied arms and other aid for the Syrian government. Iranian security officials also allegedly traveled to Damascus to help deliver this assistance. A second senior U.S. official said members of Iran's main intelligence service, the Ministry of Intelligence and Security, are assisting Syrian counterparts in charge of the crackdown.[274] More anonymous sources were cited by the UN in May 2012, as it claimed arms were moving both ways between Lebanon and Syria, and alleged weapons brought in from Lebanon were being used to arm the opposition.[275] The alleged spike in Iranian arms was likely a response to a looming influx of weapons and ammunition to the rebels from Gulf states that had been reported shortly before.[222]
According to US journalist Geneive Abdo, the Iranian government provided the Syrian government with technology to monitor e-mail, cell phones and social media. Iran developed these capabilities in the wake of the 2009 protests and spent millions of dollars establishing a "cyber army" to track down dissidents online. Iran's monitoring technology is believed to be among the most sophisticated in the world, perhaps only second to China.[266]
[edit]China
China has provided diplomatic support and possibly facilitated material support for Assad's government. This has included vetoing a UN Security Council resolution in tandem with Russia;Jerusalem Post correspondent Oren Kessler reported that Beijing's veto was enacted in the interests of preserving its ties with Russia.[276] China was named in a May 2012 Security Council report as a transit hub for illegal arms shipments from North Korea, with UN investigators investigating reports of such shipments to the Syrian government.[277]
[edit]Other countries
According to a top official of the Iranian revolutionary guard corps, Hezbollah operatives took part in fighting on the ground against the opposition in Damascus and in the Battle of Zabadani.[278]
In February 2012, it was reported that Hugo Chavez' government in Venezuela had been shipping tens of millions of dollars of diesel to Syria, which can be used to fuel army tanks.[279] The following month, as it readied a third shipment, Venezuela confirmed that it would continue sending diesel to the country.[280] A Greece-based trading company, Naftomar, is reputedly the last firm arranging deliveries of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), but, unlike the fuel sent from Venezuela and Russia, LPG is a peaceful material that plays a vital role in countries like Syria that have limited infrastructure for piping gas. International sanctions do not apply to LPG for humanitarian reasons.[281]
WikiLeaks revelations beginning in July 2012 showed that the subsidiary of an Italian arms company had provided communications equipment to the Syrian military in May 2011, and that, as late as February 2012, its engineers gave training on the use of the communications technology, including how it could be installed in helicopters.[282]
[edit]Events in Lebanon
Main article: 2012 conflict in Lebanon
In May 2012, following a series of previous sectarian clashes between pro-Assad forces (mostly Alawites) and anti-Asad forces (mostly Lebanese Sunnis[44]) the violence in Lebanon reached new heights. Since mid-May until early June 2012, dozens were killed in Tripoli and Beirut and hundreds wounded. The Lebanese Army was deployed in the conflict areas in order to pacify the sides.
[edit]Syrian refugees
Main article: Refugees of the 2011–2012 Syrian uprising
The refugee problem began unfolding across Syrian borders on April 2011, intensifying with the siege of Talkalakh and the unrest in the Syrian province of Idlib. As a result, thousands of Syrian citizens fled across the border to Lebanon and Syria by summer 2011. In early 2012, the numbers of Syrian refugees swelled to some 20,000 registered by UN in Lebanon, Turkey and Jordan. Syrian Kurds constitute most of the thousands who have sought shelter in northern Iraq.[190]
Following the increased fighting in Homs and the escalating assault of Syrian troops on towns and villages near Lebanese border, a large-scale refugee influx into Lebanon was reported on 4 March 2012. The exact number of moving Syrian refegees was not clear, but was described around 2,000.[283] The numbers of Syrian refugees were estimated at 130,000 in early March 2012.
On 10 April, it was reported that the number of Syrian refugees in four neighboring countries jumped by 40% within several weeks and stands at about 55,000 registered, almost half of whom are under 18 years old, according to U.N. figures.[284] There were also estimated to be at least 20,000 refugees who have not yet registered, as well as 200,000 or more Syrians who were displaced within their own country.[284]
By June, the number of Syrian refugees reached 180,000 throughout the Middle East, with the major concentration of 120,000 in Jordan.
[edit]Deaths
The number of fatalities in the conflict, according to the Syrian opposition website Syrian Martyrs, was 18,960, updated to 7 July 2012.[285] The number includes 1,470 military defectors, and does not include members of the government security forces or foreign fighters who have died on both sides.[30] 131 foreign civilians who have died in the conflict are also included in the toll, most of them, 89, being Palestinians.[286] The Syrian Martyrs number is significantly higher than the ones presented by other organisations, including the UN, one reason being they record deaths even when no name is given for the reportedly killed individual.[287]
UNICEF reported that over 500 children have been killed.[288][289] Another 400 children have been reportedly arrested and tortured in Syrian prisons.[290][291] Both claims have been contested by the Syrian government.[292] Additionally, over 600 detainees and political prisoners have died under torture.[293]
| Governorate | Number of deaths |
|---|---|
| Latakia | 376 |
| Rif Dimashq | 1,862 |
| Homs | 6,739 |
| Hama | 2,041 |
| Al-Hasakah | 59 |
| Daraa | 1,808 |
| Aleppo | 687 |
| Deir ez-Zor | 816 |
| Damascus | 392 |
| Tartus | 67 |
| Quneitra | 19 |
| Idlib | 3,027 |
| As-Suwayda | 6 |
| Ar-Raqqah | 62 |
| Total | 17,961 |
Other estimates range from 14,100 to 17,625. Except for the L.C.C. estimate, which does not count security forces,[287] all of the totals include civilians, rebels, and security forces. Foreign civilians and fighters who have died on both sides are not included in the following figures:
| Source | Casualties | Time period |
|---|---|---|
| United Nations | 14,100 killed[294] | 15 March 2011 – 13 June 2012 |
| Local Coordination Committees | 14,582 killed*[295][296] | 15 March 2011 – 30 June 2012 |
| Syrian Observatory for Human Rights | 17,012 killed[14] | 15 March 2011 – 7 July 2012 |
| The Violation Documentation Centre | 17,623 killed[22][297] | 15 March 2011 – 8 July 2012 |
Notes:
*Does not include fatalities for the period from 5 April to 30 April 2012.
*Does not include fatalities for the period from 5 April to 30 April 2012.
Al Jazeera journalist Nir Rosen reported that many of the deaths reported daily by activists are in fact armed insurgents falsely presented as civilian deaths, but confirmed that real civilian deaths do occur on a regular basis.[173] A number of Middle East political analysts, including those from the Lebanese Al Akhbar newspaper, have also urged caution.[298][299][300]
This was later confirmed when in late May 2012, Rami Abdulrahman of the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, which is one of the opposition-affiliated groups counting the number of those killed in the uprising, stated that civilians who had taken up arms during the conflict were being counted under the category of "civilians".[23][301][302]
While the Syrian Government claimed that over 4,000 of it's soldiers have died in the conflict, a retired senior military officer in the Syrian Army has issued a detailed report, citing Syrian military sources and western reasearch that suggests the true number of soldiers killed is actually 8,763 with over 20,000 wounded.[13]
[edit]Combatant deaths
| Pro-government combatants | Casualties |
|---|---|
| Syrian military and police | 4,316[14]-5,000[15][16] killed |
| Shabiha | Unknown,[303] 64 conf.[17] |
| Lebanese Hezbollah | 147 killed[18][19] |
| Iranian Basij | 85 killed[18][19][20] |
| TOTAL | 4,612-5,296 killed |
| Anti-government combatants | Casualties |
|---|---|
| Rebels (former soldiers) | 1,808 killed[304] |
| Rebels (former civilians) | 1,916-1,966 killed[305] |
| Foreign rebel fighters | 36 killed[6] |
| TOTAL | 3,760-3,810 killed |
[edit]Foreign civilians killed
| Country | Number of deaths |
|---|---|
| Palestine | 100[286] |
| Lebanon | 13[286][306][307] |
| Turkey | 6[286][308][309] |
| Tunisia | 5[286] |
| Iraq | 3[286] |
| Egypt | 2[286] |
| France | 2[286] |
| Jordan | 2[286] |
| Sudan | 2[286] |
| United Kingdom | 2[310] |
| Saudi Arabia | 1[286] |
| United States of America | 1[286] |
| Total | 139 |
[edit]Reaction
[edit]Domestic
Main article: Syrian reactions to the 2011–2012 Syrian uprising
[edit]Concessions
On 19 March 2011 by legislative decree 35, Assad shortened the length of mandatory army conscription from 21 months to 18 months.[311] On 20 March, the Syrian government announced that it would release 15 children who had been arrested on 6 March for writing pro-democracy graffiti.[312] On 23 March, by regional decree 120, Faisal Ahmad Kolthoum was removed as Governor of Daraa.[313] On 24 March, Assad's media adviser, Buthaina Shaaban, said that the government will be "studying the possibility of lifting the emergency law and licensing political parties". The Syrian government also announced a cut in personal taxation rates, an increase in public sector salaries of 1,500 Syrian pounds ($32.60 US) a month and pledges to increase press freedom, create more employment opportunities, and reduce corruption.[314]
On 26 March, Syrian authorities freed 260 political prisoners – 70 according to other sources – mostly Islamists, held in Saidnaya prison.[315] On 27 March, Bouthaina Shaaban confirmed that the emergency law would be lifted, but did not say when.[94] On 29 March, the Syrian cabinet submitted its official resignation to Assad.[95] On 31 March, Assad set up a committee of legal experts to study legislation that would pave the way to replacing decades-old emergency laws. The committee was to complete its study by 25 April. Assad also set up a judicial committee tasked with investigating the circumstances that led to the death of Syrian civilians and security forces in the cities of Daraa and Latakia.[316]
The government, dominated by the Alawite sect, also made some concessions to the majority Sunni and some minority populations in April. On 6 April, it was reported that teachers would once again be allowed to wear the niqab, and that the government had closed the country's only casino.[317] Of the 200,000 descendants of Syrian Kurds denied citizenship in 1962, 120,000 who were labeled "foreigners" were granted citizenship.[72]
On 7 April, Assad relieved the Governor of Homs province from his duties and issued a decree granting nationality to thousands of Kurds living in the eastern al Hasakah province[318] while the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said the 48 Kurds were released, more than a year after they were arrested in the eastern city of Raqqa.[319] This came a day after Assad met with Kurdish tribal leaders to discuss citizenship issues concerning the Kurds of Syria’s north-eastern provinces, as hundreds of thousands of Kurds were stripped of their citizenship rights as a result of the 1962 national census.[320]
On 19 April, a bill was approved by the Syrian government to lift the emergency law.[321] Two days later, Assad signed legislative decree 50 into law, together with decrees abolishing the Supreme State Security Court and regulating the right to peaceful demonstration.[322] On 30 April, Prime Minister Adel Safar announced a comprehensive plan for reforms in the coming weeks in three areas: political reform, security and judicial reform; economic reform and social policies; and the development of administration and governmental work.[323]
On 28 December, the state released 755 detainees "whose hands were not stained with Syrian blood".[324] As part of the Arab League peace plan, Syria released 3,500 prisoners on 3 January and a further 552 detainees on 5 January 2012.[325] On 15 January, president Al-Assad issued a general amnesty for those imprisoned for crimes committed in the context of the uprising.[326]According to state news agency SANA, 5,255 detainees have been released as of 22 January, with the release of further prisoners still continuing.[327]
On 15 February, Syrian state television announced that the government would hold a referendum on a new constitution on 26 February, in an attempt to end the conflict.[328] One of the amendments in the draft would replace the old article 8, which entrenches the power of the Ba'ath party, with a new article reading: The state's political system is based on political pluralism and power is practiced democratically through voting.[329] On 26 February, voting began at 07:00 local time at more than 13,000 polling stations, due to stay open for twelve hours. In the weeks leading up to the referendum, state television had been hosting discussions about the new constitution and informing citizens how to vote.[330] Parliamentary elections were held after the ratification of the new constitution.[331] After the elections, Mohammad Jihad al-Laham was elected as the new Syrian speaker of parliament.[332]
[edit]Censorship
On 5 February 2011, there were reports that the government was limiting internet services, though Facebook and YouTube were reported to have been restored three days later.[333] Suggestions were made that easing the ban could be a way to track activists.[334] In August 2011, Syrian security forces attacked the country's best-known political cartoonist, Ali Farzat, a noted critic of Syria's government and its crackdown. Relatives of the severely beaten humorist told Western media that the attackers threatened to break Farzat's bones as a warning to stop drawing cartoons of government officials, particularly Assad. Farzat, who recently celebrated his 60th birthday, was hospitalized with fractures in both hands and blunt force trauma to the head. Also, government loyalists have been blamed for cutting the vocal cords of poets and other censorship crimes of this nature.[335]
[edit]Human rights violations
Main article: Human rights violations during the Syrian Uprising
The "vast majority" of human rights violations, and all of the international crimes, documented have been committed by the Syrian armed and security forces and their allied militia.[74]:4[75]:1[148]:10[336]:20 Some violations are so serious, deliberate and systematic as to constitute crimes against humanity[73]:5[148]:7[336]:18–20[337] and war crimes.[148]:7 Human Rights Watch accused the Assad government of creating an "archipelago of torture centers".[338]:1 The key role in the repression, and particularly torture, is played by the mukhabarat: the Department of Military Intelligence, the Political Security Directorate, the General Intelligence Directorate, and the Air Force Intelligence Directorate.[73]:9[338]:1, 35
With regard to armed opposition groups, the UN accused them of: unlawful killing; torture and ill-treatment; kidnapping and hostage taking; and the use of children in dangerous non-combat roles.[75]:4–5
[edit]Rallies in support of the Assad government
Since the start of the uprising, large crowds have rallied in the support of the Assad government, especially in the cities of Damascus,[339][340]Aleppo,[341] Tartus,[342] and Lattakia[343] Such rallies have been held since March 2011, and particularly following the suspension of Syria from the Arab League.
The Guardian reported on 22 March that one response of the Syrian authorities to the unrest was to organise pro-Assad rallies.[344] Pro-Assad rallies were held in the capital city of Damascus on 25 March.[345] In mid-June, rallies in support of Assad and his government increased; protests held in front of the French and Turkish embassies over their condemnations of the Syrian government's response to the unrest, and on 15 June, people at a pro-government demonstration in Damascus carried a 2.3 kilometre-long Syrian flag down Mezzeh boulevard.[346] State television reported that two million people attended to express Syrian national unity and Syria's rejection of foreign interference in its internal affairs.[347]
The day after Assad addressed the nation on 20 June, state television reported that over one million people gathered in Umayyad Square in Damascus, and there were demonstrations in Homs, Aleppo, Sweida, Lattakia, Deraa, Hasaka, Tartus, and elsewhere to express support for the reforms the president said he would carry out.[348]
[edit]Other
On 15 January 2012, SANA, the official Syrian news agency, announced a "general amnesty for crimes committed" during the uprising. The amnesty covered the period between 15 March 2011 and 15 January 2012.[349] Hours later, Syrian authorities released 80-year-old former judge Haitham al-Maleh, one of Assad's most outspoken critics, under an amnesty marking the anniversary of the 1963 coup which brought the Ba'ath Party to power. Twelve Syrian human rights organisations called on the government to scrap the state of emergency which had been in effect for almost 50 years.[350]
On 16 February, government critic and director of the Organisation for Democracy and Freedom in Syria (ODFS) Ribal al-Assad, son of Rifaat al-Assad and cousin to Syrian President Bashar al-Assad, held a press conference in London, in which he made it clear that he "does not want to see a Syrian revolution, but a peaceful change of power".[351] In a 5 April interview, Ribal al-Assad warned of Syria's risk for a civil war.[352]
A Syrian American man, Mohamad Anas Haitham Soueid, was charged by U.S. federal prosecutors on 5 October with tracking Syrian Americans supporting the uprising in the United States and passing information to Syrian authorities, who then arrested family members of the dissidents living in Syria. The U.S. government alleges that Soueid met with Assad during a two-week trip to Syria in summer 2011.[353]
In October, Amnesty International published a report showing that at least 30 Syrian dissidents living in Canada, Chile, France, Germany, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States, faced intimidation by Syrian embassy officials, and that in some cases, their relatives in Syria were harassed, detained and tortured. Syrian embassy officials in London and Washington, D.C. were alleged to have taken photographs and videos of local Syrian dissidents and sent them to Syrian authorities, who then retaliated against their families.[354]
On 4 June, Channel 4 News's chief correspondent Alex Thompson stated that Syrian rebels he was with had purposely tried to lead him and his team into a death trap so that they would be killed by gunfire from government forces in an alleged bid to discredit the Assad regime. Thomson stated that they were trying to return to government lines when their rebel escort led them down what he described as a dead-end in the middle of a "free-fire zone".[355]
[edit]International
Main article: International reactions to the 2011–2012 Syrian uprising
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The Arab League,[356] European Union,[357] Secretary-General of the United Nations,[358] and many Western governments condemned the violence and the Syrian government's response to the protests, and many expressed support for the protesters' right to exercise free speech.[359][360] China and Russia supported the government against international sanctions.[361] Russia, whose Mediterranean fleet's primary naval base is in Syria, denounced the use of violence by the opposition and the presence of "terrorists" within its ranks.[362]
[edit]Media coverage
According to the OHCHR, "Reports from a wide variety of sources assert that the demonstrations were mostly peaceful. Civilians of all ages participated in protests and often carried olive branches or bared their chests to show that they were unarmed. Government-controlled media channels reported these events inaccurately, in most cases attributing disturbances to 'terrorist' elements."[73]:20
Under criticism from Internet activists for failing to acknowledge the Syrian uprising, some of the largest opposition parties in Syria that might have great political influence following any change of power were profiled.[363]
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